According to Keim et al. In the same line, Buonocore et al. In terms of education, job insecurity has traditionally been related to a lower educational level 53 , although more recent studies show an inverted relationship 54 , Thus, Kinnunen et al. In contrast, when the job offer is sufficient, having higher education levels dampens job insecurity. On the other hand, household-related variables have also been analyzed as possible predictors of perceived job insecurity.
Another variable of interest is the family's economic situation, related to the main breadwinner 35 , 36 , and the existence of a spouse who also works and contributes to the household income. In this respect, Mauno and Kinnunen 57 observe, in man—woman couples with two salaries, that the concern for the economic situation of one of the spouses generates greater job insecurity in the other one.
H2: Job insecurity increases in a more vulnerable socio-economic context, such as a lower household income, b having children, and c a lower level of education. The second set includes predictive variables related to labor conditions. Temporary and part-time contracts increase job insecurity 48 , 58 , Moreover, a longer time spent in a company is associated with less job insecurity The same applies to professional categories: white collar workers or with a higher qualifications perceive less insecurity than blue collar workers Changes in the organization, such as reorganizations or salary restructuring, salary cuts or staff reductions also increase insecurity 9 , Other type of employees that is highly susceptible to experience job insecurity are self-employed workers We believe that they require more in-depth studies.
This was also highlighted by Shoss 9 , given the increase in self-employed workers in recent years e. In addition, informal work, without contractual relationships, is presented as an important form of precariousness with serious implications for insecurity 62 and health H3: The level of job insecurity increases in the case of being in a weak Labor position, such as a informal work, b temporary contracts, c part-time work and d having suffered a salary cut in the last year.
H4: In a stronger Labor position, such as a a longer tenure and b a white-collar job category, the job insecurity decreases. In this study we incorporate social and contextual factors as precursors of job insecurity instead of intrapsychic variables. The reason is that these factors do not consider the individual to be the origin of the insecurity, but rather the surrounding social circumstances. We want to provide evidence on the weight that this type of variables has on the perception of job insecurity.
To do so, our first objective is to analyse different socioeconomic factors that affect to job insecurity. A second objective is to incorporate the gender perspective to previous knowledge in this area. This allows us to propose different levels of organizational and institutional interventions, showing that we are facing a psychosocial phenomenon that affects workers. So, the research question asked is: do the demographic and labor factors related to job insecurity have a different effect on women and men?
This question is based on the weaker position that women typically occupy in the labor market, along with other factors that are also related to greater difficulty in accessing employment. More recent scientific literature concludes that job insecurity is experienced equally by men and women, although there is no clear consensus. The reasons for this could be the limited number of gender-based studies on the topic that consider the unequal conditions of female work.
Quota and convenience sampling were conducted. To this end, the target group for the study was defined as men and women between 18 and 65 years of age, who were working and resided in Spain.
Then, volunteers were sought to complete the questionnaire online during a period of 6 months. Once we had a sufficient number of participants, the well-completed questionnaires and those that answered the requested profile were filtered. The sample obtained comprises 1, individuals, living in different Spanish regions: men and women, with an average age of The participants' characteristics are summed up in Table 1.
Table 1. Means, standard deviations and frequencies of the socio-economic and labor variables. The original scale shows a realiability above 0. The scale comprises 8 items on a 5-point Likert scale format. It offers a global score on Job Insecurity, as well as for two dimensions: cognitive and affective.
The range of the sum scores is from 8 to The Age, Household Income and Tenure variables are numerical. The other variables have been transformed into dichotomic variables or dummy variables 65 , and take the following values: informal work 0 with contract, 1 without contract ; Temporary Work 1 temporary contract, 0 open-ended contract , Part-time work 1 part-time day, 0 full day ; Job Category 0 white collar, 1 blue collar ; Self-employment 1 self-employed worker, 0 third-party worker , and Education 0 with university studies, 1 without university studies.
We also added a variable related to changes in the company, which is Salary Cut 1 salary cuts in last year, 0 no cuts in salary in last year. The respondents completed a self-administered questionnaire with all variables. All participants were informed of the objectives, characteristics, and procedures of the study, and signed the informed consent prior to completing the questionnaire. This research follows the requirements and protocols of the Ethics Committee of Oviedo University, where it was performed, as well as all the ethical demands and recommendations included in section 8 of the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct of the APA First, a descriptive analysis of the data was conducted to determine the sample characteristics and the average scores on the JIS-8 scale.
Then, a Two-Sample T -Test was carried out to compare the score in job insecurity between women and men. A stepwise linear regression analysis was conducted separately for men and women. A P -value of 0. Table 3 includes the correlations between the dependent variable Job Insecurity and the numerical predictors, both for men and for women. In general, all the variables correlate in the same direction with Job Insecurity in men and women, except Education, which does so positively in men and negatively in women.
Job Insecurity and Age do not correlate in any of the groups. Therefore, the variable Age was not included in the regression analysis. Table 3. Correlations between Job Insecurity and the socio-economic and labor variables in men and women.
The results of the linear regression can be seen in Table 4. Number of Children, Part-time work, and Self-employment were not statistically significant variables in any of the samples, so they do not predictor Job Insecurity. The model explains Table 4.
Results of multiple linear regression analysis of predictors associated with job insecurity in men and women standardized coefficients. The objective of this study is to determine the existing gender differences when predicting perceived job insecurity based on individual and organizational objective variables.
Previous studies took gender as a job insecurity predictor 22 , 37 , 48 but this article, compared the results in men and women to study the influence of the social and cultural context on job insecurity. Generally speaking, it has been found that differences in men and women with respect to the development of job insecurity reflect gender inequality at work. Women showed a higher score in job insecurity than men, taking a general measure and without controlling the influence of other variables.
So, Hypothesis 1 There is no difference between the general score for job insecurity in men and women was not confirmed. Regarding Hypothesis 2, Job insecurity increases in a more vulnerable socio-economic context, such as a lower household income, b having children, and c a lower level of education was not satisfied, as a higher level of Job Insecurity was observed in men workers with university studies.
Finally, Hypotheses 3 The level of job insecurity increases in the case of being in a weak labor position, such as a informal work, b temporary contracts, c part-time work, and d having suffered a change in the contract in the last year , and Hypothesis 4 H4: In a stronger labor position, such as a a longer tenure and b a white collar job category, the job insecurity decreases were corroborated, but differently in men and women, because there are some elements that appear in both genders, but others only in one of the groups.
If we look at the common variables, we find some related to working conditions. The results obtained point to temporary work, informal work and salary cuts in the last year as predictors in both groups. These are variables associated with a weak labor market position 67 that had previously been defined as predictors of job insecurity 9.
The fact that organizational changes generate greater fear of losing one's job becomes especially important 22 , 68 , as having experienced a cut in salary in the last year. If we consider the specific conditions or variables that present differences between the models obtained, we find the following: household income level, education and job category are statistically significant in the group of men, but not so in the group of women.
The opposite occurs with tenure, which, in our results, only appears in the female sample model. Regarding income, the discrepancies in this variable are explained by maintaining the model that understands the man as the main breadwinner Lewis, , since, when the men belong to a household with low income, the fear of losing their job increases.
Thus, although both men and women work in the family unit, the female salary is still assumed today as secondary and complementary to the male partner, as Giesselman 69 observed in European countries such as Germany.
The results referring to the influence of education reflect a changing reality: they show that job insecurity also grows at higher educational and professional levels in the men sample. This phenomenon is being observed among general youth 54 , 55 , and may be playing an important role in unfulfilled labor expectations. Its relevance in the group of men and not in that of women could be related to their tendency to focus more on their professional careers, while women are forced to divide their attention between work and family Moreover, this is one of the factors that generates occupational segregation, especially the so-called glass ceiling The relation is inverse with the job category, increasing the job insecurity among the blue collar workers, in the line of previous studies 9.
On the other hand, despite seniority in the company being related to insecurity, in this study we can observe that the threat of the loss is more relevant in women when they have not held the job for a long time. A possible explanation would be the expectations related to the presence of higher figures of precariousness for female work 25 , 42 , which could be increasing women's fear of being fired or not having their contracts renewed.
However, seniority in the company is a variable that is highly related to age and the identity that the job grants to people 46 , 70 , In our globalized world, inequality cannot be left to markets and local communities to solve any more than climate change can.
Global inequality today is at a level last seen in the late 19th century—and it is continuing to rise. With it has come a surging sense of disenfranchisement that has fuelled alienation and anger, and even bred nationalism and xenophobia. As people struggle to hold on to their shrinking share of the pie, their anxiety has created a political opening for opportunistic populists, shaking the world order in the process.
The gap between rich and poor nowadays is mind-boggling. I can offer my own jarring comparison. That is certainly something to celebrate. But our work is far from finished. And, contrary to popular belief, that work must not be confined to the developing world. As Angus Deaton recently pointed out, extreme poverty remains a serious problem in rich countries too.
Given the much higher cost of living including shelter , he notes, such an income can pose an even greater challenge in a country like the US than it does in, say, India. With quantitative surveys and qualitative methods, which also examine individual feelings and psychological factors, the well-being of individuals should be recorded as accurately as possible.
With the PEARL programme , the FNR offers Luxembourg research institutions attractive funding to enable them to draw established and internationally recognised researchers from abroad to Luxembourg. The financial contribution can be used flexibly to implement the research programme at the host institution.
How inequality and economic insecurity affect individual well-being. Video by ScienceRelations. Spotlight on Young Researchers: Empowering critical digital humanities practice.
Statement of the Problem Poverty and inequality are a concern to both developing and developed nations across the world Melamed, ; Shepherd et al. Poverty is so widespread and prevalent in Ethiopia that the country is amongst the poorest nations in the world UNDP, Recently, Ethiopian government claimed that poverty and inequality are declining in all regions MoFED, However, empirical.
Future Prospects for Work in Canada The use of historic studies can help to identify the direction of the economy by examining inequality, insecurity and the health implications associated with these phenomena.
For organizations to remain relevant in a post-industrial society, it is necessary to evaluate the efficiency of current organizational management methods. The globalization of work is one of the main contributing factors for change in the modern Canadian economy Spilerman, In essence, inequality in society is making people sick. For example, the United States is a country that has very wealthy people along with a staggering amount of poor individuals, yet it is one of the richest countries in the world.
America, the land of prosperity and opportunity, lost its appeal as it plunged into financial crises and economic instability: the root cause being income inequality. However, it seems that this dream has died.
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